Enhancements in grinding and pressing plant matter were followed by improvements in extracting the oil. In , Deiss of England obtained the first patent for extraction of oil using solvents, following experiments by Jesse Fisher in At first, solvents such as benzene were pumped through the material and drained through false perforated bottoms. Later, Bollman and Hildebrandt of Germany independently developed continuous systems that sprayed the material with solvent.
Both methods were eventually improved, and today solvent extraction is standard in the vegetable oil industry. Cooking oil manufacture involves cleaning the seeds, grinding them, pressing, and extrading the oil from them. In extracting, a volatile hydrocarbon such as hexane is used as a solvent.
After extracting, the oil is refined, mixed with an alkaline substance, and washed in a centrifuge. It is then ready for packaging.
Over time extracting vegetable oils has become more and more efficient. The very earliest methods of pressing the vegetable matter probably obtained, at best, 10 percent of the oil available. On the other hand, more modern methods involving solvent extraction can extract all but.
The average bottle of cooking oil contains vegetable oil, with no additives, preservatives, or special flavorings. The oil comes from various parts of plants, in most cases from what are commonly called seeds including sunflower, palm kernel, safflower, cotton, sesame, and grapeseed oils or nuts including peanut, soybean, almond, and walnut oils.
A few special cases involve merely squeezing the oil from the flesh of the fruit of the plant. For example, coconut oil comes from the coconut's white meat, palm oil from the pulp of the palm fruit, and olive oil from the flesh of fresh olives.
Atypically, corn oil is derived from the germ embryo of the kernel. Some vegetable oils, such as olive, peanut, and some coconut and sunflower oils, are cold-pressed. This method, which entails minimal processing, produces a light, flavorful oil suitable for some cooking needs.
Most oil sources, however, are not suitable for cold pressing, because it would leave many undesirable trace elements in the oil, causing it to be odiferous, bitter tasting, or dark.
These oils undergo many steps beyond mere extraction to produce a bland, clear, and consistent oil. The most obvious byproduct of the oil making process is oil seed cake.
Most kinds of seed cake are used to make animal feed and low-grade fertilizer; others are simply disposed of. In the case of cotton, the lint on the seed is used to make yarn and cellulose that go into such products as mattresses, rayon, and lacquer. Coconut oil generates several byproducts, with various uses: desiccated coconut meat copra is used in the confectionery industry; coconut milk can be consumed; and coir, the fiber from the outer coat, is used to make mats and rope.
Since corn oil is derived from a small portion of the entire kernel, it creates corn meal and hominy if it is dry milled, and corn starch and corn syrup if it is wet milled. Lecithin is a byproduct of the degumming process used in making soybean oil. This industrially valuable product is used to make animal feed, chocolate, cosmetics, soap, paint, and plastics—to name just a few of its diverse uses.
Recent research has focused on utilizing the residual oil seed cake. The cake is high in protein and other nutrients, and researchers are working to develop methods of processing it into a palatable food that can be distributed in areas where people lack sufficient protein in their diets.
This goal requires ridding through additional processing the oil seed cake of various undesirable toxins such as gossypol in cotton seed, or aflatoxin in peanut meal. Initial results are promising. The nuts and seeds used to make oil are inspected and graded after harvest by licensed inspectors in accordance with the United States Grain Standards Act, and the fat content of the incoming seeds is measured.
For the best oil, the seeds should not be stored at all, or for a only very short time, since storage increases the chance of deterioration due to mold, loss of nutrients, and rancidity.
The seeds should be stored in well-ventilated warehouses with a constantly maintained low temperature and humidity. Pests should be eradicated, and mold growth should be kept to a minimum. Seeds to be stored must have a low moisture content around 10 percent , or they should be dried until it reaches this level dryer seeds are less likely to encourage the growth of mold.
Vegetable oils are extracted from plants, often from the seeds, and the likes of rapeseed oil, olive oil and palm oil are all popularly used varieties of vegetable oils. Thousands of years ago it may have been as simple as squashing a few olives, but now vegetable oil production takes place on a massive scale, with a range of different plants being used.
At its heart, making vegetable oil is as simple as cracking open a few nuts and extracting the tasty oil within. How that extraction is actually achieved, on the other hand, is less simple. Unlike seeds and nuts that require a refinement process to extract the oil, olives just require pressing to give up their goods. But what changed over all these years to increase the performance of our vegetable oil extraction by such a great degree?
Essentially, the vegetable oil production process can be broken down into the following stages: cleaning, pressing, solvent extraction, refining and packaging.
Below, we have outlined what these stages entail. Seeds and nuts need to be cleaned and stripped of their extraneous material before being refined into oil. Once crushed up, the nuts and seeds are heated to help facilitate the extraction of the oil.
Edible oil industry is a complicate supplier chain, which is involved in plant planting, seed storage, transportation, production, processing, oil storage, and transportation. These links are interrelated, mutually restrictive, and interlinked. Security problems taking place in any link will affect the EPO quality.
Therefore, in order to ensure the safety of edible oil, we must seize every link of the edible oil industry and take proper safety measures to monitor the entire process. A strict and reasonable evaluation system is the key to ensure the quality and safety of EPOs. During cultivation stage, oil-bearing plants mainly encounter three major elements: natural environment, pests and diseases, and exposure to chemical pesticides.
Natural environment includes air, water, light and soil, while atmospheric pollution mainly includes inhalable particulate matter, SO 2 , and nitrogen oxides. Some studies have shown that SO 2 can affect carbohydrate synthesis in plants, which causes plant cell membrane lipid peroxidation, permeability damage, ion exosmosis, and the increase of ethylene production in vivo before injury, leading to premature maturation and senescence of plants.
This is a great damage to oil crops at seedling stage and eventually affects the yield of oil plants. Thus, it is important to monitor the air quality in the growing environment of oil plants. Soil is the basis of providing nutrients for plant growth and development, and therefore, good soil conditions are required for growing oil-bearing plants. It is necessary to strengthen soil quality monitoring. Oil-bearing plants inevitably encounter diseases, insect pests, and weeds during their growth and development, which not only affect plant growth but also affect the quality of fruit and ultimately affect the quality of EPOs.
Pesticides are effective measures to control the effects of pests and weeds. The use of pesticides can increase yield and economic benefits, but it also affects the soil and fruit. Therefore, we should strictly control the soil conditions, the degree of pests and diseases, and the use of pesticides.
Common control technologies of pest and disease are as follows Li and Zhang, :. Various cultivation modes such as rotation and interplanting can be adopted. Using resistant varieties under good cultivation management can enhance plant resistance to stress. New technologies and methods can be used to identify pests and diseases more rapidly.
To solve the key problems of pesticide residues, it is important to establish a good evaluation system Li, It is best to use environmentally friendly pesticides with excellent control, little impact on natural enemies, low toxicity, and no residues.
The use of chemical pesticides should be strictly controlled Cao et al. There are many types of pesticides, and the standards of pesticide usage vary in different countries. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a strict and uniform evaluation criterion for the usage of pesticides and pesticide residues.
Heavy metals not only pollute the soil but also negatively affect food safety when plants are contaminated with the heavy metals from the soil Fryzova et al. Therefore, it is necessary to control the amounts of heavy metals in the soil. It is indispensable to establish relevant soil heavy metal standards and limits Table 5 and regularly monitor the content of heavy metals in the soil where oil plants are planted.
Once the content of heavy metals in soil exceeds the standard, the cultivation of oil plants should be prohibited. If the soil is slightly polluted by heavy metals, the oil plants with weak adsorption capacity should be selected.
Furthermore, it is still necessary to monitor the content of heavy metals in processing raw materials. The varieties with strong resistance should be selected before planting to reduce the amount of pesticide. Some genetically modified oil crops may have strong resistance and weak adsorption capacity of heavy metals.
However, the safety of genetically modified organisms is still controversial. Thus, the supervision of genetically modified oil crops must be in place, and the products may be clearly marked. Fruits and seeds are the most common parts of oil plants used for oil extraction. Due to the damage by animal encroachment or machine, a proper harvesting method should be selected during harvesting and a process of checking the integrity of the seeds or fruits is necessary after harvesting.
Because damaged seeds and fruits are easier infected by microorganisms, reducing the quality of raw materials. For each kind of oil plants, the exact harvesting time should be firstly considered. After harvesting, when the seeds and fruits are not immediately pressed, they need to be carefully stored in the most optimal environment.
The main factors affecting the safe storage of oil are moisture, temperature, relative humidity, pests, microorganisms Mmongoyo et al. These factors must be detected frequently during seeds and fruits storage. The evaluation of the harvest mainly includes a survey of the degree of damage to seeds and fruits during harvesting, and storage conditions should be strictly controlled.
EPOs can be obtained from the processing of plant seeds or fruits. At present, there are three main processing methods: hot pressing, cold pressing, and solvent extraction; each of the method has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Compared with other two methods, cold pressing method maybe the better oil pressing method for obtaining high quality oil. In addition, there is also a method called supercritical CO 2 extraction Sookwong, and Mahatheeranont, No matter which oil pressing method, it is hard to obtain complete-pesticide-free oil, and trace amount of pesticide residues may be still detectable in extracted edible oils.
To remove as more as possible the pesticide residue in oil, different counties have made different criterion for limiting the pesticides. Among them, the European Union is the organization with the strictest detection criteria. Therefore, the EU standards can be used to evaluate pesticide residues after processing. The quality and safety of edible oil are related to human health, attracting the attention of all human beings. Its evaluation depends on different testing data, testing depends on instruments to complete, and advanced scientific instruments are the material basis to promote more accurate testing.
This method is simple, fast, effective, and has good purification effect Deng et al. It is also necessary to develop rapid detection techniques for the detection of different hazardous substances in raw materials and EPOs. In the future, with the continuous development of science and technology, more advanced instruments can be used for detection and a multi-stage evaluation system will be established Figure 5 to deal with the the deteriorating environment, which will help to improve the safety and quality of EPOs.
Figure 5 The quality and safety of EPOs monitored during the whole industrial chain. Of course, the establishment of a multi-stage evaluation system for EPOs requires the joint efforts of all countries in the world.
People in different countries have different lifestyles and dietary habits, which is also influenced by religious beliefs and cultural differences.
Furthermore, the detection standards of pesticide residues in edible oils in different countries and organizations are various, and subsequently, further communication and improvement is required. This will also be conducive to the global trade of EPOs.
In each stage of the edible oil industry, strict monitoring of environmental conditions is required to provide a good and safe environment for the cultivation, harvesting and processing of oil crops, and ultimately to ensure the safety of edible oil production under environmentally friendly conditions. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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